HISTORICAL INHERITANCE OF PAKISTAN: THE MUSLIM CONQUESTS IN THE SUB-CONTINENT

This paper presents an overview of the historical inheritance of Pakistan; Muhammad bin Qasim’s conquest of Sindh in 712 which pushed the Hindus of India into a millennium of domination by various Muslim empires and dynasties. The political and religious impacts of Muslim rulers on Indian sub-continent, the feelings of separate identity of Muslim from Hindu majorities. The invasion of Arabs and other Muslim rulers in the subcontinent were mainly for the purpose of propagations of Islam, trade and the expansion of their role and dependency. Most of the historian justified that the Arab invasion on the subcontinent was only for the purpose of spreading Islam but the contradictory views is that the Arab and other Muslim invaders objectives were to grab immense wealth and dominate the trade route of the region.


Introduction
As goods and merchandises from India and Southeast Asia had been in high demand in Egypt and Southern Europe for a long time, Arabs, with the transit trade mostly in their control, carried commerce from the Indian ports to Yemen in Southern Arabia. As a result of events involving Arab sailors conducting their commerce over the Indian Ocean, the Muslims of Arabia and the Indian subcontinent had their first significant clash. Some of them passed away while they were in Ceylon, and the island's king sent presents and condolence letters for Hajjaj along with their families to Arabia (661-714), who was the Umayyad Empire's eastern provinces and powerful viceroy at that time. The vessels carrying the gifts and the survivors was diverted by harsh winds on to the shores of Debul (which in present day Karachi). Here unfortunately they were attacked by pirates who plundered the gifts, and force the Muslim children and women as prisoners. Hajjaj, when came to know about this, protested to the ruler of Sindh, Dahar, and ordered the release of the captives and return of the plunder fortune, but he received only an ambiguous reply. The infuriated Hajjaj, who was famous in Arab history for his administrative ability as well as for his severity, convinced Caliph Walid to allow punishing (Gopal, 1994)measures (afzal, 2009) against Dahar.
Two excursions were sent against Dahar which were ended in failure, the third time Hajjaj sent a handpicked trusted brave body of soldiers under who was the commander and his son-in-law, Six thousand strong horsemen and a camel groups of equal force, under the command of Arab general marched against Debul though Shiraz and by way of Makkran. A very tough resistance was given by the Debul fort, but in the end the forts was captured and Muslim flag has been raisen for the very first time on soil of Subcontinent. 1 In 713 Muhammad ibn Qasim then proceeded towards Upper Sindh. His conquest towards Punjab begin form Multan, the prominent city, was well secure, when they came to know about a stream which provided water to the city through a runaway, they were able to divert it and force the battalions to surrender. Now whole of Sindh and part of the Punjab was under the control of the Arab general Muhammad ibn Qasim. After the conquest of Multan, he moved towards the borders of the state of Kashmir.
Arabs won over the Indian forces with comparative ease and conquered a large territory. The victory was moderately due to it the quality of their disciplined troops, the capability of the military chief, and the strength of the Arab military strategy. Success was achieved by Muhammad ibn Qasim over the masses due to the conciliatory policy adopted towards all those who surrender to the Arabs and assisted his task. The Arab victory was obvious more for voluntarily giving up rather than after bloody battles. In such one of the events at Nirun, the general was welcomed by the Buddhist priests, and at Sehwan the people submitted to Muhammad ibn Qasim and revolted against the Hindu governor. (Avari, 2012) Majority of the people were actually fed up with the former rulers, or at least lack of interest to their fate, seems in fact to have contributed significantly to Arab success. In 750 when Umayyad's were overthrown by the Abbasids, they sent their own commanders to Sindh. Hisham the Abbasid governor, in 757 who came to Sind, carried out successful conquest against Kashmir and Gujarat (Pollack, 2004) In As of the year 854, Mansura served as the capital of Sindh, which was ruled by the Hibbari family. In the meanwhile, Rohri saw a revival of Hinduism, and Multan attained independence. Multan and Sindh became a lucky and practical hunting field for the envoys of the Abbasid opponents once communication with Baghdad ceased. Their first representatives arrived in Sindh in 883 and began to advance the Ismaili Caliph. In 977, Multan was taken after a military reversal from Cairo. The Khutba was recited in the name of the Ismaili king, and Ismaili doctrines were now the recognised religion (Jussawalla, 1985). With the ascent of Mahmmud of Ghazni, who eventually seized Mansura upon his return from Somnath, the Ismailis encountered fierce opposition. As the Ghaznavids lost strength, the Ismaili religion rose to prominence, but in 1175 Sultan Muhammad Ghuri seized Multan and named an orthodox Sunni as governor. Additionally, the region was included under the Sunni sultanate, first under Ghazni and then Delhi (Dunbar, 1936) Within a short period of time, Sultan Muhammad Ghauri was capable enough to capture a large part of area in the subcontinent, Due to constant threats from the Turkish army, he was assassinated upon arriving in Ghazni by an unidentified royal party. His slave rulers had so been given the spotlight. The most significant of the four was Qutubuddin Aibak. With Lahore as his capital, Muhammad successfully founded the first Muslim Sultanate on the subcontinent. Aibak passed away in 1210 after falling off his horse while playing polo. In 1220, the capital was transferred to Delhi after ten years. The "Qutab Minar and Delhi Mosque" was erected by Qutubuddin Aibak's successors. Minority presence allows his successor to maintain control over India. Despite the fact that they were a minority compared to the Hindus and Sikhs, the Hindus still had to abide the laws and rules of the Muslim Leaders (al-Mamun). Consequently this was slab stonework en route for the groundwork of Pakistan.

The Sultanate of Delhi
Subsequently the demise of Muhammad Ghauri in 1210 Qutubuddin Aibak established the Delhi sultanate. After Aibak Iltutmish was his successor. In 1221 when Chenghez Khan reached Indus, he was first foreign threat to him. Iltumish was good in diplomatic skills and war skills of the army of Chenghez Khan. He persuaded Chenghez Khan to leave some troops in Punjab instead of capturing the sultanate. Those troops were constant threat to Iltumish (al-Mamun). Iltumish forces crushed Ali Mardan Khan's army when in 1226 he declare himself as a independent khilji ruler of Bengal and Bihar. When Rajput fortresses were also captured, rule of Delhi was extended. He died due to illness in 1236 (al-Mamun). During his rule Iltumish faced a lot of external threats.
Iltamish's daughter Razia Sultana was the successor. Delhi Jamia Masjid supported her,so she became the first ever Empires of Muslim world. Being a woman she had too many critics and her opposition used that as an advantage. Later her half-brother Bahram murdered her. With her dead the glory of Delhi Sultanate started to decline and Khilji's end their rule. The empire was after her death, local empires were badly divided. Just to prove that a woman cannot be a leader one after another forty Turkish took control and this divided the public opinion. This further divided them in sects and in ethnic groups (Rawlinson, 1950).

Khiljis, Tughluqs, Sayyids and Lodhis Empire in Foundation
Sultanate of Delhi came to an end with the death of Balban the khiljis took over in 1286. The first sultan was Jalaludin of khilji dynasty. Allauddin Khilji killed him and took over the throne in 1296. 30% Agricultural taxes was raised by him. Jizya tax was also enforced forcefully. People became poor and by using force they were made obedient to the empire. Laws were enforcing upon Hindus, passion of gold, silver and any luxury was banned for them. Mutiny and uprising were out of question for them. (Oddie, (2009)) Surprisingly upon reaching Delhi Allaudin khilji defeated Mongols in 1299.for four years Alauddin's son Mubarik ruled.
Mubarak's son Ghazi Malik became his successor .he gave himself the Ghazi Tughlaq Shah designation. Calligraphy, Philosophy and mathematics were his passion. He was a skilled ruler. In his court Ameer Khusrou,Ibn Batutha and other poets were designated as Qazi.he liked and appreciated poets. Muhammad Tughlaq forcefully converted Mongols to islam, whom he thought were a threat to him. Then later they were known as Mughal rulers. Many constructions, country Park, institutions and mosques were built by the ruler Ferouz shah when was in power.
In the sub-continent Islam spread widely under his rule. Lower caste Hindus in Bengal were suffering badly and working as labor in poor conditions. After the recaptured of Bengal they converted to Islam when they realized that Muslims believed in equality and Allah has giving equal rights to all human. (Radhey Shyam Chaurasia, 2002). The Tughluqs rule began to decline when Firoz shah died in October 1388.Timur burnt the properties of Hindus to ashes and almost killed all of them; he destroyed the temples of infidel. When he declared jihad on weak empire of Tughluqs in 1398.Timure took control of Multan, Lahore and Sindh. IN 1414 after the death of Mahmud Tughluq, no one ruled Delhi for two years. The Sayyid Dynasty ruled for 37 years, Khizar Khan was the first ruler of that dynasty. Muslims had high privilege posts in this era. Authorities treated Sikhs and Hindus very harshly when they failed to pay jizya or any other taxes to the empire. Bahloul khan took much of the territory in 1451, and Lodhis rule begum. He was a modest emperor. Commoners had access to him as noble did (Naseem, 1999). Successor of him was Sikander Shah. He had too much criticism due to his Hindu mother; Muslims believed he was unworthy to be a king. They didn't like the idea of a Muslim marrying a non-Muslim and having children from her.
From captivity of jail Sikander Shah frequently freed prisoners. After the death of Sikander shah, his son Ibrahim Lodhis who was a Hindu, became the sultan .Portuguese gain foothold and got strengthen in Bombay due to internal problems in his rule. Delhi sultanate ended when Timor's descendant Babur established the Mughal empire in 1526 (Naseem, 1999).eventually Muslim culture prevailed and got strengthened and had a was recognized as a different culture from Hindus and Sikhs. Inhuman practices like Suttee and thuggee came to an end in subcontinent due to Islamic culture.

The Saga of Mughal Empire
Descendent of Timur the Mongol, Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur was the first Mughal emperor. Lodhi was defeated by Babur in 1526; his forces were outnumbered ten to one. Ruling Delhi sultanate for 320 years their reign ended at last.
The whole north of India went under Babur rule, when Rajput leader Rana Sanga was defeated by Babur in 1527. Babur also defeated Afghan chiefs and took Bengal and Bihar, extending his empire in 1529.Agra became the capital. Lands were given by him to nobles. He gave charge of provinces to his three sons. For local administration, he appointed Hindus and Muslims as administrators for collection of taxes. (Ali, 1975) Babur was great admirer of culture and he encouraged Writers, poets and litterateurs. He was good in Arabic, Persian and Turkish. Not only in Turkish but in the history of the world his autobiography, Babur-name has a special place. In 1530 at the age of 48 He deceased. (Ali, 1975) His elder son Hamayun was his successor. He was a good fighter but he was a bad military head. He was a good astrologer and he also studied geography. He was an inventor. Moveable market On river which moved from place to place, floating garden, to cross the river he invented bridge of boats and he painted the roof of a palace made by wood in golden color and rest of it with bright colors. He had many enemies. In Jahanpur, Muhmud Lodhi was defeated by Hamayun. In 1535 he also defeated king of Gujarat, Bahudar Shah in Mandsur. (Ali, 1975) An Afghan chief Sher Shah Suri was the worst enemy of hamayun.In 1540 he attacked on Hamayun forces many times to take his throne .As Hamayun lost his kingdom in battle of Kanauji defeated by him. Hamayun army was badly dismantled so he ran away to Persia because his life was not safe .even his brother didn't help him. Some of his loyal chiefs helped him to build an army. In the battles of Ferouzapur and Machiwara he defeated afghan army. Delhi became his new capital. This time he organized his kingdom. An Afghan leader Sultan Sikander attacked Mughals in June 1555 but in Sirhind Humayun defeated him. In January 1556 Humayun fell down from the step of stair in his library in Delhi and died.
His succor was his elder son Jalal-ud-Din. He was just 13 years old at age when he became an emperor. He was illiterate. He did not get formal education. But he was intelligent. As a sultan, Bahiram khan helped him to take Punjab back. Bahriam Khan looked after him and he was the general of his army. He allowed Hindus to follow their religion freely and take care of their properties and land by their will. He believed in a united nation.
He conquered most of sub-continent by the end of 16 th century. He gave orders to stop evil practice of Satti where widow was burned alive with deseeded husband. He removed the tax of jizya which non-Muslims had to pay. Hinduism was encouraged by him with the time passing by Islam was discouraged by him. On his orders Muhammad name was banned, Arabic studies were neglected, Islamic calendar was completely ignored in daily use. He personally began to worship sun, light and fire. Din-i-ilahi or 'Divine Faith' a new religion was started by him. Muslims didn't like that and started to oppose him. He claimed he was the head of that religion. After ruling for 50 years he died in 1605 at the age of 65. (Khosla, 1934) His only son Jahangir became the next king even with rebellions against Jalal-ud-Din.as a sultan Jahangir had too many enemies. He almost spent all of his time keeping order and maintains control of his kingdom. (Khosla, 1934) His own sons rebelled against him.in 1607 khusrau and Khurran in 1622.there was another rebellion in 1607 ever one at that time till up to now believes Khusrau was involved. Mahabat Khan was his trusted general but later he also rebelled against him.
Mewar and Kangra were conquered by him but Persian took Kandahar from him. He made sure to Bengal and Deccan was under Mughal rule. His son Khurran famous as Shah Jahan became his succor after his death in 1627.Khan Jahan Lodhi governor of Deecan was killed in 1631 by loyal chief of Shah Jahan because he was trying to persuade him to start an uprising against the throne.
The magnificent monuments like Taj Mahal were built by Shah Jahanin Agra city which shows he was a great builder. He tried to take central asia from Persian empire but he was defeated there.He sends his army to Bengal to teach a lesson to Portuguese settlers who started to convert Muslim young women to Christianity, he was very angry about this act. After defeating Portuguese settlers, he gave them two choices either they want stay in prison for ever or to become Muslim. Taj Mahal became his final resting place when he died in 1666.this era was the peak of Mughal empire where everything was going in their favor but the elite and noble started to build extremely expensive construction. Due to this lust of pleasure by nobles, they empty the treasury of state. In 1658 Aurangzeb became the Sultan. Soon he became to know that most of the state money and time was spent in fights and wars. When he was a young boy, he learned Quran and hadith by heart.
Later he became a strict follower of Islam in his own life and as a emperor .as a sultan he made many copies of Quran. Being an Islamic scholar and an intelligent man, he tried to unite the people with Islamic ways. He was a Sunni muslim.so he devoted himself and his acts according to Islam. At one time he had 4 wives. He was good in calligraphy he sent copies of Quran to mosque in Mecca and Medina. He gave order to close the painting workshop in 1665, singing and dancing and some activities were banned in 1668. But Hindus didn't like his thoughts of implementing Islamic ways. Most of population was Hindu in subcontinent at that time.so they started to make problems. (Fyzee, 1965) After that he once again imposes jizya on non-Muslims and gave orders to his governors of provinces to destroy Hindu temples.In Lahore he built famous Badshahi masjid and many other mosques. From 1681 he fought Marathas for next 20 years trying to subdue the uprising and problem.in 1707 Aurangzeb died. With his death golden days of Mughals ended as well.in next century Mughals ruled but did nothing special .they just tried to survive.

Islamic Reformers in Subcontinent
Shah Wali Ullah, Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi and Haji Shariat Ullah brought Islamic reforms. They worked on people in innovated ways to bring them to Islamic spirit. Shah Wali Ullah tried to teach the Quran, he tried to show the people that by following Quran they will be successful in life after death. He firmly believed Quran was the only right way for Muslims to be close to Allah and it has a complete code to a peaceful and successful life. He made translations from Arabic to Persian of Quran so people could understand it better and follow it. He tried to bring Sunni and Shia sect by bridging the gap so they can unite against non-Muslims forces. He tried to tell them that their religious differences are weakening them against Marathas and Sikhs.
He set the example for future for Islamic rulers and reformers. They followed his exemplary teachings and strived to keep the Islamic way of life for Muslims. Syed Ahmad Shaheed was a revolutionary Islamic leader of the jihad movement who belonged from Rae Bareli. He was greatly inspired by Shah Wali Ullah a great Islamic leader who had led the jihad against the cruel Sikh regime in the sub-continent. The jihad movement created a sense of freedom in the Muslims of India who could not practice their religious values under the Sikh tyranny. The struggle of jihad movement provided a base for the Pakistan movement and Muslims realized how their values were disrespected and ignored.
Hajji Shariat Ullah was born in Bengal. He went to Arabia at a very young age and spent a considerable amount of his youth there and was greatly inspired by Sheikh Abdul Wahab. He came back from Arabia and founded the Fraizi movement that stressed upon the fact that Muslims were being astrayed by the Hindus and have abandoned their values. The Fraizi movement asked the Muslims to to fulfill their religious obligations such as prayer, charity etc.

Two Nation Theory and Islamic state
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan at first was a great advocate of Hindu-Muslim unity but later realized that the Congress was a biased party who only strived for the interests of the Hindus and ignored the Muslim sentiments. Sir Syed later realized that congress only worked for Hindus and the Muslims would never have their values respected if they remained with Hindus. Muslims lacked the modern education the Hindus had and Sir Syed stressed upon the fact that needed the modern education to compete with the Hindus. So Muslims needed the representation in politics and fix quota in jobs to get their voices heard. In 1867 after the Hindi-Urdu controversy sir Syed realized that Hindus and Muslims were entirely different nations and Muslims needed a separate homeland because they were a separate nation. (Anand, 2001) All these events paved way for the two nation theory that was the ideology behind the Pakistan movement.
Sir Syed's vision of Muslim representation and his two nation theory was a base for the formation of All India Muslim league in 1906.

Paving To Towards the Independence of Pakistan
In the 19th century, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was unequivocally the most noteworthy Muslim Social Reformer who appeared on the Indian subcontinent scene. His pioneering thoughts and longstanding vigorous and determined attempts were truly critical; they brought about a revival of the Muslims as a unique nation in the subcontinent and made possible the ultimate creation of an independent state for Muslims of subcontinent.
Pakistan was established as a result of efforts made by Sir Syed and the Aligarh Movement. The country's very idea evolved over the period of time as a nation in the subcontinent authored by Sir Syed. Aligarh Movement paved way for Pakistan movement in the political arena. In fact "the Pakistan Movem ent and the Aligarh Movement and are inseparable and complementary". The guardians of the Aligarh Movement and the Muslim University students provided indispensable services to the creation of Pakistan.All these events after the 1857 war of independence created a sense of distinctness in Muslims and they realize that Hindus and Muslims were not a single nation and that their cultural and religious values were different and even their languages were not the same. Muslims eventually raised their voices against the Hindu tyranny and after a long and hard struggle acquired a separate homeland for themselves in 1947 where they could practice their religion and culture.

Conclusion
It can be seen that the Arab invasion and the Muslim conquests paved way for the rise of Islam in sub-continent. The Muslim invasions in the Indian subcontinent brought Islamic culture and religion a parallel to the Indian nations. And this changing factor creates a sense of superiority and divided nation on the basis of religion. With the passage of time Hindu majority later oppressed the Muslims of India after the fall of Muslim dynasties. For this oppressive nature of Hindus on Muslim minorities gave the sense of separate Muslim entity and many prominent Muslim leaders rose and rescued the Muslim integrity and many struggles later paved way for the formation of Pakistan.